Exposure and involvement in cyberhate, that is, hate based on ethnic or religious criteria, is a preoccupying societal issue as it impacts not only individuals but also their communities and social cohesion. The majority of young people understand that cyberhate is a form of aggression and that it has negative consequences on people’s lives. Participants were involved as exposed, victims or perpetrators. However, 15% stated that they had been exposed to cyberhate (racism, xenophobia or religious-based content), 3% had been victims of cyberhate and 2% self-reported being authors of cyberhate.
Although these percentages are small, being a victim is associated with negative outcomes and should be taken seriously. Structural equation models highlight that offline victimisation and cyberhate are correlated with both cyberhate perpetration and victimisation. Moreover, victimisation is related to negative and deviant behaviours (lying, stealing, fighting, etc.) and it affects wellbeing as victims score higher levels of anxiety and impulsivity and have lower self-esteem.